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Between andItalian explorer Christopher Columbus led four Spanish transatlantic maritime expeditions of discovery to the Americas. These voyages led to the widespread knowledge of the New World.
This breakthrough inaugurated the period known as the Age of Discoverywhich saw the colonization of the Americasa related biological exchangeand trans-Atlantic trade.
These events, the effects and consequences of which persist to the present, are sometimes cited as the beginning of the modern era. Born in the Republic of GenoaColumbus was a navigator who sailed for the Crown of Castile a predecessor to the modern Kingdom of Spain in search of a westward route to the Indiesthought to be the East Asian source of spices and other precious oriental goods obtainable only through arduous overland routes. Columbus was partly inspired by 13th-century Italian explorer Marco Polo in his ambition to explore Asia and never admitted his failure in this, incessantly claiming and pointing to supposed evidence that he had reached the East Indies.
Ever since, the islands of the Caribbean have been referred to as the West Indies. At the time of Columbus's voyages, the Americas were inhabited by Indigenous Americans.
Soon after first contact, Eurasian diseases such as smallpox began to devastate the indigenous populations. Columbus participated in the beginning of the Spanish conquest of the Americasbrutally treating and enslaving the natives in the range of thousands. Columbus died inand the next year, the Americas were named after Amerigo Vespucciwho realized that these continents were a unique landmass.
The search for a westward route to Asia was completed inwhen another Spanish voyage, the Magellan-Elcano expedition sailed across the Pacific Ocean and reached Southeast Asiabefore returning to Europe and completing the first circumnavigation of the world. Many Europeans of Columbus's day assumed that a single, uninterrupted ocean surrounded Europe and Asia, although Norse explorers had colonized areas of North America beginning with Greenland c.
Until the midth century, Europe enjoyed a safe land passage to China and India —sources of valued goods such as silkspicesand opiates —under the hegemony of the Mongol Empire the Pax Mongolicaor Mongol Peace.
With the Fall of Constantinople to the Turkish Ottoman Empire inthe land route to Asia the Silk Road became more difficult as Christian traders were prohibited. Portugal was the main European power interested in pursuing trade routes overseas, with the neighboring kingdom of Castile —predecessor to Spain —having been somewhat slower to begin exploring the Atlantic because of the land area it had to reconquer from the Moors during the Reconquista.
This remained unchanged until the late 15th century, following the dynastic union by marriage of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon together known as the Catholic Monarchs of Spain inand the completion of the Reconquista inwhen the joint rulers conquered the Moorish kingdom of Granadawhich had been providing Castile with African goods through tribute.
The fledgling Spanish Empire decided to fund Columbus's expedition in hopes of finding new trade routes and circumventing the lock Portugal had secured on Africa and the Indian Ocean with the papal bull Aeterni regis. In response to the need for a new route to Asia, by the s, Christopher and his brother Bartholomew had developed a plan to travel to the Indies then construed roughly as all of southern and eastern Asia by sailing directly west across what was believed to be the singular "Ocean Sea," the Atlantic Ocean.
By aboutFlorentine cosmographer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli sent Columbus a map depicting such a route, with no intermediary landmass other than the mythical island of Antillia. A popular misconception that Columbus had difficulty obtaining support for his plan because Europeans thought the Earth was flat can be traced back to a 17th-century campaign of Protestants against Catholicism, [10] and was popularized in works such as Washington Irving 's biography of Columbus.
The primitive maritime navigation of Columbus's time relied on both the stars and the curvature of the Earth. Eratosthenes had measured the diameter of the Earth with good precision in the 2nd century BC, [14] and the means of calculating its diameter using an astrolabe was known to both scholars and navigators. Most scholars accepted Ptolemy 's correct assessment that the terrestrial landmass for Europeans of the time, comprising Eurasia and Africa occupied degrees of the terrestrial sphere, and dismissed Columbus's claim that the Earth was much smaller, and that Asia was only a few thousand nautical miles to the west of Europe.
Columbus believed the incorrect calculations of Marinus of Tyreputting the landmass at degrees, leaving only degrees of water. There was a further element of key importance in the voyages of Columbus, the trade winds, help now with a christopher columbus essay. The navigational technique for travel in the Atlantic appears to have been exploited first by the Portuguese, who referred to it as the volta do mar 'turn of the sea'.
Columbus's knowledge of the Atlantic wind patterns was, however, imperfect at the time of his first voyage. By sailing directly due west from the Canary Islands during hurricane seasonskirting the so-called horse latitudes of the mid-Atlantic, Columbus risked either being becalmed or running into a tropical cycloneboth of which, by chance, he avoided. AroundKing John II of Portugal submitted Columbus's proposal to his experts, who rejected it on the basis that Columbus's estimation of a travel distance of 2, nautical miles was about four times too low which was accurate.
InColumbus was granted an audience with the Catholic Monarchs, and he presented his plans to Isabella. She referred these to a committee, which determined that Columbus had grossly underestimated the distance to Asia. Pronouncing the idea impractical, they advised the monarchs not to support the proposed venture. To keep Columbus from taking his ideas elsewhere, and perhaps to keep their options open, the Catholic Monarchs gave him an allowance, totaling about 14, maravedís for the year, or about the annual salary of a sailor.
In Columbus again appealed to the court of Portugal, receiving a new invitation for an audience with John II. This again proved unsuccessful, in part because not long afterwards Bartolomeu Dias returned to Portugal following a successful rounding of the southern tip of Africa.
With an eastern sea route now under its control, Portugal was no longer interested in trailblazing a western trade route to Asia crossing unknown seas. In MayIsabella sent Columbus another 10, maravedisand the same year the Catholic Monarchs furnished him help now with a christopher columbus essay a letter ordering all cities and towns under their domain to provide him food and lodging at no cost. As Queen Isabella's forces neared victory over the Moorish Emirate of Granada for Castile, Columbus was summoned to the Spanish court for renewed discussions.
A council led by Isabella's confessor, Hernando de Talaverafound Columbus's proposal to reach the Indies implausible. Columbus had left for France when Ferdinand intervened, [a] first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza to appeal to the queen. In the April " Capitulations of Santa Fe ", Columbus was promised he would be given the title "Admiral of the Ocean Sea" and appointed viceroy and governor of the newly claimed and colonised for the Crown; he would also receive ten percent of all the revenues from the new lands in perpetuity if he was successful.
The terms were unusually generous but, as his son later wrote, the monarchs were not confident of his return. For his westward voyage to find a shorter route to the OrientColumbus and his crew took three medium-sized ships, the largest of which was a carrack Spanish: naothe Santa Maríawhich was owned and captained by Juan de la Cosaand under Columbus's direct command.
The other, the Santa Clarawas nicknamed the Niña 'girl'help now with a christopher columbus essay, perhaps in reference to her owner, help now with a christopher columbus essay, Juan Niño of Moguer. A replica of the Pinta in Palos de la Frontera.
A replica of the Santa María at West Edmonton Mall. Three days into the journey, on 6 Augustthe rudder of the Pinta broke, help now with a christopher columbus essay.
The crew was able to secure the rudder with ropes until they could reach the Canary Islands, where they arrived on 9 August.
As described in the abstract of his journal made by Bartolomé de las Casason the outward bound voyage Columbus recorded two sets of distances: one was in measurements he normally used, the other in help now with a christopher columbus essay Portuguese maritime leagues used by his crew. Las Casas originally interpreted that help now with a christopher columbus essay reported the shorter distances to his crew so they would not worry about sailing too far from Spain, but Oliver Dunn and James Kelley state that this was a misunderstanding.
On 13 SeptemberColumbus observed that the needle of his compass no longer pointed to the North Star. It was once believed that Columbus had discovered magnetic declinationbut it was later shown that the phenomenon was already known, both in Europe and in China. After 29 days out of sight of land, on 7 Octoberthe crew spotted "[i]mmense flocks of birds", some of which help now with a christopher columbus essay sailors trapped and determined to be "field" birds probably Eskimo curlews and American golden plovers.
Columbus changed course to follow their flight. On 11 October, Columbus changed the fleet's course to due west, and sailed through the night, believing land was soon to be found. At around in the evening, Columbus thought he saw a light "like a little wax candle rising and falling".
Columbus called this island San Help now with a christopher columbus essay, in the present-day Bahamas ; the indigenous residents had named it Guanahani. Many of the men I have seen have scars on their bodies, and when I made signs to them to find out how this happened, they indicated that people from other nearby islands come to San Salvador to capture them; they defend themselves the best they can.
I believe that people from the mainland come here to take them as slaves. They ought to make good and skilled servants, for they repeat very quickly whatever we say to them.
I think they can very easily be made Christians, for they seem to have no religion. If it pleases our Lord, I will take six of them to Your Highnesses when I depart, in order that they may learn our language. Columbus called the indigenous Americans indios Spanish for 'Indians' [54] [55] [56] in the mistaken belief that he had reached the East Indies; [57] the islands of the Caribbean are termed the West Indies after this error.
Columbus initially encountered the LucayanTaínoand Arawak peoples. Columbus observed the people and their cultural lifestyle. He also explored the northeast coast of Cubalanding on 28 Octoberand the north-western coast of Hispaniolapresent day Haitiby 5 December Here, the Santa Maria ran aground on Christmas Day25 Decemberand had to be abandoned. Columbus was received by the native cacique Guacanagariwho gave him permission to leave some of his men behind.
Columbus left 39 men, including the interpreter Luis de Torres[60] [m] and founded the settlement of La Navidad. On 13 JanuaryColumbus made his last stop of this voyage in the Americas, in the Bay of Rincón at the eastern end of the Samaná Peninsula in northeast Hispaniola. Four natives who boarded the Niña at Samaná Peninsula told Columbus of what was interpreted as the Isla de Carib probably Puerto Ricowhich was supposed to be populated by cannibalistic Caribsas well as Matinino, an island populated only by women, which Columbus associated with an island in the Indian Ocean that Marco Polo had described.
While returning to Spain, the Niña and Pinta encountered the roughest storm of their journey, and, on the night of 13 February, lost contact with each other, help now with a christopher columbus essay. All hands on the Niña vowed, if they were spared, to make a pilgrimage to the nearest church of Our Lady wherever they first made land.
On the morning of 15 February, land was spotted. Columbus believed they were approaching the Azores Islandsbut other members of the crew felt that they were considerably north of the islands. Columbus turned out to be right. On the night of 17 February, the Niña laid anchor at Help now with a christopher columbus essay Maria Islandbut the cable broke on sharp rocks, forcing Columbus to stay offshore until the morning, when a safer location was found to drop anchor nearby.
A few sailors took a boat to the island, where they were told by several islanders of a still safer place to land, so the Niña moved once again. At this spot, Columbus took on board several islanders who had gathered onshore with food, and told them that his crew wished to come ashore to fulfill their vow. The islanders told him that a small shrine dedicated to Our Lady was nearby. Columbus sent half of the crew members to the island to fulfill their vow, but he and the rest of the crew stayed on the Niñaplanning to send the other half to the island upon the return of the first crew members.
While the first crew members were saying their prayers at the shrine, they were taken prisoner by the islanders, under orders from the island's captain, João de Castanheira, ostensibly out of fear that the men were pirates. The boat that the crew members had taken to the island was then commandeered by Castanheira, which he took with several armed men to the Niñain an attempt to arrest Columbus.
During a verbal battle across the bows of both craft, help now with a christopher columbus essay, during which Columbus did not grant permission for him to come aboard, Castanheira announced that he did not believe or care who Columbus said that he was, especially if he was indeed from Spain.
Castanheira returned to the island. However, after another two days, Castanheira released the prisoners, having been unable to get confessions from them, and having been unable to capture his real target, Columbus. There are later claims that Columbus was also captured, but this is not backed up by Columbus's log book.
Leaving the island of Santa Maria in the Azores on 23 February, Columbus headed for Castilian Spain, but another storm forced him into Lisbon. He anchored next to the king's harbor patrol ship on 4 Marchwhere he was told a fleet of caravels had been lost in the storm.
Astoundingly, both the Niña and the Pinta had been spared. Not finding King John II of Portugal in Lisbon, Columbus wrote a letter to him and waited for the king's reply. After receiving the letter, the king agreed to meet with Columbus in Vale do Paraíso despite poor relations between Portugal and Castile at the time. Upon learning of Columbus's discoveries, the Portuguese king informed him that he believed the voyage to be in violation of the Treaty of Alcáçovas.
After spending more than a week in Portugal, Columbus set sail for Spain. Columbus met with Ferdinand and Isabella in Barcelona on 15 March to report his findings, help now with a christopher columbus essay. Columbus showed off what he had brought back from his voyage to the monarchs, including a few small samples of gold, pearlsgold jewelry from the natives, a few Taíno he had kidnapped, flowers, and a hammock, help now with a christopher columbus essay. He gave the monarchs a few of the gold nuggets, gold jewelry, and pearls, as well as the previously unknown tobacco plant, the pineapple fruit, the turkey, and the help now with a christopher columbus essay. The monarchs invited Columbus help now with a christopher columbus essay dine with them.
Follow the Dream: The Story of Christopher Columbus by Peter Sís - READ ALOUD - CHILDREN'S BOOK
, time: 6:12The Truth About Christopher Columbus
Christopher Columbus (/ k ə ˈ l ʌ m b ə s /; born between 25 August and 31 October , died 20 May ) was an Italian explorer and navigator who completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, opening the way for the widespread European exploration and colonization of the blogger.com expeditions, sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, were the first European contact with the Short deadlines are no problem, and we guarantee delivery by your specified deadline. Nobody beats our quality with hour turnarounds. Just let us know NOW ADMIRAL OF THE OCEAN SEA VOLUME 1: A LIFE OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS|Samuel Eliot Morison so Oct 08, · When Christopher Columbus does come up in the media or the classroom, he is usually simply bashed or praised, depending on the viewpoint of
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